La mortalidad por VIH en las jurisdicciones sanitarias de México de 1990 a 2015 / HIV mortality in sanitary districts of Mexico from 1990 to 2015

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la distribución y tendencias de la mortalidad por VIH en las jurisdicciones sanitarias (JS) de México. Material y métodos: Se calcularon las tasas estandarizadas de mortalidad utilizando las cifras oficiales de defunciones (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía) y estimaciones de población (Consejo Nacional de Población). Se analizó la magnitud, distribución y tendencias de la mortalidad por VIH a nivel nacional, por entidad federativa y JS utilizando el modelo de regresión JoinPoint. Resultados: De 2008 a 2015, la mortalidad por VIH disminuyó más de 20%. En las 25 JS con mayor mortalidad por VIH reside 11% de la población nacional, pero concentra 28.6% de las muertes, con el doble o triple de la mortalidad nacional. Conclusiones: Se identificaron las 25 JS en donde deben focalizarse las acciones para reducir la mortalidad por VIH. Por primera vez se analizó un problema de salud en todas las JS mexicanas.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze the distribution and trends of HIV mortality in the Sanitary Districts (JS) of Mexico. Materials and methods: To calculate crude and standardized mortality rates, official figures of deaths fromInstituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografíaand population estimates fromConsejo Nacional de Poblaciónwere used. Magnitude, distribution and trends of HIV mortality were analyzed, at the national level, by state and JS, using JoinPoint regression model. Results: From 2008 to 2015, HIV mortality decreased by more than 20%. In the 25 JS with highest mortality, live 11% of the national population, but concentrated 28.6% of the total HIV death, with mortality rates two or more fold than national rate. Conclusions: We identified the 25 JS where actions to reduce HIV mortality in Mexico should be focused. For first time a health problem was analyzed in all JS of Mexico.

[HIV mortality in sanitary districts of Mexico from 1990 to 2015]. / La mortalidad por VIH en las jurisdicciones sanitarias de México de 1990 a 2015.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the distribution and trends of HIV mortality in the Sanitary Districts (JS) of Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To calculate crude and standardized mortality rates, official figures of deaths from Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía and population estimates from Consejo Nacional de Población were used. Magnitude, distribution and trends of HIV mortality were analyzed, at the national level, by state and JS, using JoinPoint regression model. RESULTS: From 2008 to 2015, HIV mortality decreased by more than 20%. In the 25 JS with highest mortality, live 11% of the national population, but concentrated 28.6% of the total HIV death, with mortality rates two or more fold than national rate. CONCLUSIONS: We identified the 25 JS where actions to reduce HIV mortality in Mexico should be focused. For first time a health problem was analyzed in all JS of Mexico.

OBJETIVO: Analizar la distribución y tendencias de la mortalidad por VIH en las jurisdicciones sanitarias (JS) de México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se calcularon las tasas estandarizadas de mortalidad utilizando las cifras oficiales de defunciones (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía) y estimaciones de población (Consejo Nacional de Población). Se analizó la magnitud, distribución y tendencias de la mortalidad por VIH a nivel nacional, por entidad federativa y JS utilizando el modelo de regresión JoinPoint. RESULTADOS: De 2008 a 2015, la mortalidad por VIH disminuyó más de 20%. En las 25 JS con mayor mortalidad por VIH reside 11% de la población nacional, pero concentra 28.6% de las muertes, con el doble o triple de la mortalidad nacional. CONCLUSIONES: Se identificaron las 25 JS en donde deben focalizarse las acciones para reducir la mortalidad por VIH. Por primera vez se analizó un problema de salud en todas las JS mexicanas.

Development of an evidence-based model of rapid testing, counseling and referral patients with HIV, HVC and other STDs in Mexican addiction treatment centers / Desarrollo de un modelo basado en evidencia de pruebas rápidas, orientación y derivación de pacientes con VIH, VHC y otras ITS en centros mexicanos de tratamiento de adicciones

Abstract Introduction Efforts to identify new cases of HIV, HVC and other STIs, through the application of quick tests, focus on people who inject drugs, without taking into account the fact that the use of alcohol and other drugs of abuse inhibits decision making, increasing the transmission of STIs through risky sexual practices. Accordingly, it is necessary to have detection algorithms that consider people who use multiple drugs to improve the identification of new cases and their subsequent linkage with health services. Objective This paper describes the development process of the OPB-APR model for the detection, counseling and referral of people with HIV and other STIs at addiction treatment centers. Method The procedure is divided into three phases: 1. A literature review to identify the basic concepts of HIV and other STIs, substance use, risky sexual behaviors, quick tests, and specialized psychological counseling; 2. A feasibility study in which a health professional is trained to implement the OPB-APR model; 3. Drafting of the final version. Results The final version of the OPB-APR model was obtained, which describes standardized procedures for detection, counseling and referral to health services. Discussion and conclusions The OPB-APR model aims to strengthen the public health system by increasing the coverage of services for the detection of HIV, HCV and other STIs. The above through the implementation of standardized procedures among specialized and non-specialized health professionals of addiction care centers.

Resumen Introducción Los esfuerzos para la identificación de nuevos casos de VIH, VHC y otras ITS, mediante la aplicación de pruebas rápidas, se centra en personas que se inyectan drogas, sin considerar que el consumo de alcohol y otras drogas de abuso inhiben la toma de decisiones incrementando el riesgo de contagio de ITS durante prácticas sexuales de riesgo. Por este motivo, es necesario contar con algoritmos de detección que consideren a personas con múltiples consumos para incrementar la identificación de nuevos casos y su posterior vinculación a servicios de salud. Objetivo Describir el proceso de desarrollo del modelo OPB-APR para la detección, orientación y referencia de personas con VIH y otras ITS en centros de tratamiento de adicciones. Método El procedimiento se dividió en tres fases: 1. Revisión de literatura para identificar conceptos básicos sobre el VIH y otras ITS, consumo de sustancias, conductas sexuales de riesgo, pruebas rápidas, y orientación psicológica especializada; 2. Estudio de factibilidad en el que se entrenó a profesionales de la saludpara implementar el modelo OPB-APR; 3. Integración de la versión final. Resultados Se obtuvo la versión final del modelo OPB-APR el cual describe procedimientos estandarizados para la detección, orientación y referencia a servicios de salud. Discusión y conclusión El modelo OPB-APR pretende fortalecer al sistema público de salud al incrementar la cobertura de servicios para la detección del VIH, VHC y otras ITS. Lo anterior mediante la implementación de procedimientos estandarizados entre los profesionales de la salud especializados y no especializados de centros para la atención de adicciones.

Sexual and reproductive health outcomes are positively associated with comprehensive sexual education exposure in Mexican high-school students.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the comprehensive sex education (CSE) coverage and to evaluate a set of indicators related to knowledge, attitudes, and practices associated with the seven components of the CSE framework among Mexican high-school students. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of students in public and private high schools in Mexico. Questions about CSE coverage and about knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to sexual health were included. We present descriptive statistics for demographic characteristics, exposure to CSE, and sexual health outcomes. We fitted a series of multivariate logistic regression models to examine the association between each CSE component exposure and sexual health outcomes, adjusting for age and sex. RESULTS: There were significant associations between being exposed to each CSE components and the related sexual health outcomes. The strongest one was for identifying effective contraceptives among those exposed to the Sexual and Reproductive Health component (SRH) (OR 4.10; 95%CI[2.93,5.75]). Also, students exposed to the relationships component had 20% higher odds of affirming they could convince their partner to use condoms (OR 1.20; 95%CI[1.05,1.36]). CONCLUSIONS: This paper provides evidence of the potential beneficial effects of CSE on attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors regarding sexual and reproductive health among adolescents. In addition, it identifies areas that should be strengthened to increase the positive impact of CSE.

Barriers to HPV self-sampling and cytology among low-income indigenous women in rural areas of a middle-income setting: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Data is needed about barriers to self-collection of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) samples and cytology among low-income, disadvantaged women living in rural areas of lower-income countries as these women are at increased risk of cervical cancer mortality. METHODS: Individual interviews (n = 29), focus groups (n = 7, 5-11 participants) and discussion groups (n = 2, 18-25 participants) were organized with women from three indigenous ethnic groups residing in rural areas in Mexico, after they were provided with free, self-sampled HPV tests. These groups are low-income, underserved by healthcare and have historically been on the receiving end of racism and social exclusion. Descriptive, qualitative content analysis was done, including two cycles of coding. RESULTS: Interview and focus/discussion group data indicate women had limited understanding of HPV's role in cervical cancer etiology. They identified HPV's existence, that cytology detects cervical cancer, the need for regular testing and that cervical cancer is sexually transmitted. Organizational barriers to clinic-based cytology included irregular supplies of disposable speculums, distance to clinics and lack of clear communication by healthcare personnel. Women considered self-collected HPV-testing easy, less embarrassing and less painful than cytology, an opportunity for self-care and most felt they understood how to take a self-sample after a 20-min explanation. Some women feared hurting themselves when taking the self-sample or that they would take the sample incorrectly, which they worried would make the test useless. Attending HPV-testing in groups facilitated use by allowing women to discuss their doubts and fears before doing self-collection of the sample or to ask other women who were the first to do the self-sampling what the experience had been like (whether it hurt and how easy it was). Lack of indoor bathrooms was a barrier to doing HPV self-sampling at home, when those homes were resource-poor (one-room dwellings). CONCLUSIONS: Low-income, indigenous Mexican women residing in rural, underserved areas identified their need for cervical cancer screening but encountered multiple barriers to cytology-based screening. They found a number of advantages of HPV self-sampled tests. Employing self-collected HPV-testing instead of cytology could resolve some but not all gender-related, organizational or technical quality-of-care issues within cervical cancer detection and control programs.

Pretreatment HIV-drug resistance in Mexico and its impact on the effectiveness of first-line antiretroviral therapy: a nationally representative 2015 WHO survey.

BACKGROUND: WHO has developed a global HIV-drug resistance surveillance strategy, including assessment of pretreatment HIV-drug resistance. We aimed to do a nationally representative survey of pretreatment HIV-drug resistance in Mexico using WHO-recommended methods. METHODS: Among 161 Ministry of Health antiretroviral therapy (ART) clinics in Mexico, the largest, including 90% of ART initiators within the Ministry of Health (66 in total), were eligible for the survey. We used a probability-proportional-to-size design method to sample 25 clinics throughout the country. Consecutive ART-naive patients with HIV about to initiate treatment were invited to participate in the survey; individuals with previous exposure to ART were excluded. We assessed pretreatment HIV-drug resistance by Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing of viruses from plasma specimens from eligible participants with Stanford University HIV Drug Resistance Database methods. We obtained follow-up data for a median of 9·4 months (range 6-12) after enrolment. We investigated possible relations between demographic variables and pretreatment drug resistance with univariate and multivariate logistic regression. FINDINGS: Between Feb 3 and July 30, 2015, we screened 288 patients in 25 clinics, from whom 264 provided successfully sequenced viruses with no evidence of current exposure to antiretroviral drugs. With the Sanger method, of these 264 participants, 41 (15·5%, 95% CI 11·4-20·5) had pretreatment resistance to any antiretroviral drug and 28 (10·6%, 7·2-15·0) had pretreatment resistance to non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). At least low-level pretreatment resistance (Stanford penalty score ≥15) was noted in 13 (4 ·â€ˆ9%) of participants to efavirenz and in 23 (8·7%) to the combination tenofovir plus emtricitabine plus efavirenz. With next-generation sequencing, of 264 participants, 38 (14·4%, 95% CI 10·4-19·2) had pretreatment resistance to any antiretroviral drug and 26 (9·8%, 6·5-14·1) had pretreatment resistance to NNRTIs. After median follow-up of 8 months (IQR 6·5-9·4, range 5-11) after ART initiation, 97 (72%) of 135 NNRTI initiators achieved viral suppression (<50 copies per mL) compared with ten (40%) of 25 individuals who started with protease inhibitor-based regimens (p=0·0045). After multivariate regression considering pretreatment resistance and initial ART regimen as composite variables, people starting NNRTIs with pretreatment drug resistance achieved significantly lower viral suppression (odds ratio 0·24, 95% CI 0·07-0·74; p=0·014) than patients without NNRTI resistance. INTERPRETATION: High levels of pretreatment drug resistance were noted in Mexico, and NNRTI pretreatment drug resistance significantly reduced the effectiveness of first-line ART regimens based on these drugs. Baseline HIV-drug resistance testing for initial ART follow-up and decision making should be considered. FUNDING: The Mexican Government and Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología.

CD4 Counts at Entry to HIV Care in Mexico for Patients under the "Universal Antiretroviral Treatment Program for the Uninsured Population," 2007-2014.

In Mexico, public health services have provided universal access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) since 2004. For individuals receiving HIV care in public healthcare facilities, the data are limited regarding CD4 T-lymphocyte counts (CD4e) at the time of entry into care. Relevant population-based estimates of CD4e are needed to inform strategies to maximize the impact of Mexico's national ART program, and may be applicable to other countries implementing universal HIV treatment programs. For this study, we retrospectively analyzed the CD4e of persons living with HIV and receiving care at state public health facilities from 2007 to 2014, comparing CD4e by demographic characteristics and the marginalization index of the state where treatment was provided, and assessing trends in CD4e over time. Our sample included 66,947 individuals who entered into HIV care between 2007 and 2014, of whom 79% were male. During the study period, the male-to-female ratio increased from 3.0 to 4.3, reflecting the country's HIV epidemic; the median age at entry decreased from 34 years to 32 years. Overall, 48.6% of individuals entered care with a CD4≤200 cells/µl, ranging from 42.2% in states with a very low marginalization index to 52.8% in states with a high marginalization index, and from 38.9% among individuals aged 18-29 to 56.5% among those older than 50. The adjusted geometric mean (95% confidence interval) CD4e increased among males from 135 (131,142) cells/µl in 2007 to 148 (143,155) cells/µl in 2014 (p-value<0.0001); no change was observed among women, with a geometric mean of 178 (171,186) and 171 (165,183) in 2007 and 2014, respectively. There have been important gains in access to HIV care and treatment; however, late entry into care remains an important barrier in achieving optimal outcomes of ART in Mexico. The geographic, socioeconomic, and demographic differences observed reflect important inequities in timely access to HIV prevention, care, and treatment services, and highlight the need to develop contextual and culturally appropriate prevention and HIV testing strategies and linkage programs.

[Delayed initiation of antiretroviral therapy in Mexico]. / Inicio tardío de terapia antirretroviral en México.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of delayed- initiation (DI) of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for people with HIV attended at the Ministry of Health (SS, for its initials in Spanish) in Mexico, and to describe its behavior over time (2008-2013) and differences by gender and age. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Descriptive and sectional study of people entering ART in the period 2008-2013 in the SS. The prevalence of DI ART (CD4+ <200 cells/ml) was estimated and differences according to sex and age were analyzed. RESULTS: The DI ART prevalence was 49%, having decreased 10% in the period. In men was 4.8% and 24.5% in women (p<0.01). The 15 to 29 years group also showed a decrease. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the decrease in ART DI prevalence, it still remains high. It is necessary to generate comprehensive screening strategies with multisectoral participation.

[The role of supply-side characteristics of services in AIDS mortality in Mexico]. / Exploración del rol de la oferta de servicios para explicar la variación de la mortalidad por sida en México.

OBJECTIVE: To document the association between supply-side determinants and AIDS mortality in Mexico between 2008 and 2013. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We analyzed the SALVAR database (system for antiretroviral management, logistics and surveillance) as well as data collected through a nationally representative survey in health facilities. We used multivariate logit regression models to estimate the association between supply-side characteristics, namely management, training and experience of health care providers, and AIDS mortality, distinguishing early and non-early mortality and controlling for clinical indicators of the patients. RESULTS: Clinic status of the patients (initial CD4 and viral load) explain 44.4% of the variability of early mortality across clinics and 13.8% of the variability in non-early mortality. Supply-side characteristics increase explanatory power of the models by 16% in the case of early mortality, and 96% in the case of non-early mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Aspects of management and implementation of services contribute significantly to explain AIDS mortality in Mexico. Improving these aspects of the national program, can similarly improve its results.

Inicio tardío de terapia antirretroviral en México / Delayed initiation of antiretroviral therapy in Mexico

Objetivo. Estimar la prevalencia de inicio tardío (IT) de terapia antirretroviral (TAR) de personas con VIH atendidas en la Secretaría de Salud (SS) en México y describir su comportamiento en el tiempo (2008-2013) así como las diferencias que presenta por sexo y grupo etario. Material y métodos. Estudio descriptivo transversal de personas que ingresaron a TAR en el periodo 2008-2013 en la SS. Se estimó la prevalencia de IT de TAR (CD4+ <200 células/ml) y se analizaron diferencias de acuerdo con sexo y edad. Resultados. La prevalencia de IT de TAR fue de 49% y se observó disminución de 10% en el periodo. En hombres fue de 4.8% y en mujeres de 24.5% (p<0.01). El grupo etario de 15 a 29 años también mostró disminución. Conclusiones. A pesar de la disminución de la prevalencia de IT de TAR, continúa siendo elevada. Es necesario generar estrategias de detección integrales con participación multisectorial.

Objective. To estimate the prevalence of delayed- initiation (DI) of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for people with HIV attended at the Ministry of Health (SS, for its initials in Spanish) in Mexico, and to describe its behavior over time (2008-2013) and differences by gender and age. Materials and methods. Descriptive and sectional study of people entering ART in the period 2008-2013 in the SS. The prevalence of DI ART (CD4+ <200 cells/ml) was estimated and differences according to sex and age were analyzed. Results. The DI ART prevalence was 49%, having decreased 10% in the period. In men was 4.8% and 24.5% in women (p<0.01). The 15 to 29 years group also showed a decrease. Conclusions. Despite the decrease in ART DI prevalence, it still remains high. It is necessary to generate comprehensive screening strategies with multisectoral participation.

Exploración del rol de la oferta de servicios para explicar la variación de la mortalidad por sida en México / The role of supply-side characteristics of services in AIDS mortality in Mexico

Objetivo. Documentar la asociación entre factores de la oferta de servicios de atención de VIH sobre la mortalidad por sida en México en el periodo 2008-2013. Material y métodos. Se analizaron datos del sistema de administración, logística y vigilancia de antirretrovirales (SALVAR) y de una encuesta aplicada en unidades de atención. Se utilizaron modelos de regresión logit multivariados para estimar la asociación entre características de la oferta de servicios -en particular, de la gerencia de servicios y de la capacitación y experiencia de los prestadores- y la mortalidad por sida, distinguiendo entre mortalidad temprana y no temprana, y controlando por características clínicas de los pacientes. Resultados. Las características clínicas de los pacientes (CD4 inicial y carga viral) explican 44.4% de la variabilidad en la mortalidad temprana entre clínicas y 13.8% de la variabilidad de mortalidad no temprana. Las características de la oferta aumentan 16% del poder explicativo en el caso de la mortalidad temprana y 96% en el de la mortalidad no temprana. Conclusiones. Los aspectos de gerencia e implementación de los servicios de atención de VIH contribuyen significativamente a explicar la mortalidad por sida en México. Mejorar estos aspectos del programa nacional puede mejorar sus resultados.

Objective. To document the association between supply-side determinants and AIDS mortality in Mexico between 2008 and 2013. Materials and methods. We analyzed the SALVAR database (system for antiretroviral management, logistics and surveillance) as well as data collected through a nationally representative survey in health facilities. We used multivariate logit regression models to estimate the association between supply-side characteristics, namely management, training and experience of health care providers, and AIDS mortality, distinguishing early and non-early mortality and controlling for clinical indicators of the patients. Results. Clinic status of the patients (initial CD4 and viral load) explain 44.4% of the variability of early mortality across clinics and 13.8% of the variability in non-early mortality. Supply-side characteristics increase explanatory power of the models by 16% in the case of early mortality, and 96% in the case of non-early mortality. Conclusions. Aspects of management and implementation of services contribute significantly to explain AIDS mortality in Mexico. Improving these aspects of the national program, can similarly improve its results.

[Coverage for birth care in Mexico and its interpretation within the context of maternal mortality]. / Cobertura de atención del parto en México. Su interpretación en el contexto de la mortalidad materna.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate health coverage for birth care in Mexico within the frame of maternal mortality reduction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two information sources were used: 1) The comparison between the results yield by the Mexican National Health and Nutrition Surveys 2006 and 2012 (ENSANUT 2006 and 2012), and 2) the databases monitoring maternal deaths during 2012 (up to December 26), and live births (LB) in Mexico as estimated by the Mexican National Population Council (Conapo). RESULTS: The national coverage for birth care by medical units is nearly 94.4% at the national level, but in some federal entities such as Chiapas (60.5%), Nayarit (87.8%), Guerrero (91.2%), Durango (92.5%), Oaxaca (92.6%), and Puebla (93.4%), coverage remains below the national average. In women belonging to any social security system (eg. IMSS, IMSS Oportunidades, ISSSTE), coverage is almost 99%, whereas in those affiliated to the Mexican Popular Health Insurance (which depends directly from the Federal Ministry of Health), coverage reached 92.9%. In terms of Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR), there are still large disparities among federal states in Mexico, with a national average of 47.0 per 100 000 LB (preliminary data for 2012, up to December 26). The MMR estimation has been updated using the most recent population projections. CONCLUSION: There is no correlation between the level of institutional birth care and the MMR in Mexico. It is thus necessary not only to guarantee universal birth care by health professionals, but also to provide obstetric care by qualified personnel in functional health services networks, to strengthen the quality of obstetric care, family planning programs, and to promote the implementation of new and innovative health policies that include intersectoral actions and human rights-based approaches targeted to reduce the enormous social inequity still prevailing in Mexico.

Universalidad de los servicios de salud en México / Universal Coverage of Health Services in Mexico

Las reformas llevadas a cabo en años recientes al sistema de salud en México han reducido las inequidades en la atención a la salud de la población, pero han sido insuficientes para resolver todos los problemas del Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS). Para que el derecho a la protección de la salud consagrado en la Constitución sea una realidad para todos los ciudadanos, México se encuentra ante la necesidad de garantizar el acceso universal y efectivo a los servicios de salud. En este trabajo se delinea una reforma de largo alcance para la consolidación de un sistema de salud, afín con estándares internacionales, que establezca las condiciones estructurales para reducir las desigualdades en cobertura. Esta reforma se plantea a partir de un "pluralismo estructurado" para evitar tanto el monopolio ejercido desde el sector público como la atomización en el sector privado, y no caer en los extremos de procedimientos autoritarios o ausencia de regulación. Esto implica sustituir la actual integración vertical con segregación de grupos sociales, por una organización horizontal con separación de funciones. Implica, asimismo, reformas de tipo jurídico y fiscal, fortalecimiento del SNS, reorganización de las instituciones de salud y formulación de los instrumentos normativos, técnicos y financieros que hagan operativo el esquema propuesto para hacer plenamente efectivo el derecho humano a la salud de los mexicanos.

The reforms made in recent years to the Mexican Health System have reduced inequities in the health care of the population, but have been insufficient to solve all the problems of the MHS. In order to make the right to health protection established in the Constitution a reality for every citizen, Mexico must warrant effective universal access to health services. This paper outlines a long-term reform for the consolidation of a health system that is akin to international standards and which may establish the structural conditions to reduce coverage inequity. This reform is based on a "structured pluralism" intended to avoid both a monopoly exercised within the public sector and fragmentation in the private sector, and to prevent falling into the extremes of authoritarian procedures or an absence of regulation. This involves the replacement of the present vertical integration and segregation of social groups by a horizontal organization with separation of duties. This also entails legal and fiscal reforms, the reinforcement of the MHS, the reorganization of health institutions, and the formulation of regulatory, technical and financial instruments to operationalize the proposed scheme with the objective of rendering the human right to health fully effective for the Mexican people.

Cobertura de atención del parto en México: Su interpretación en el contexto de la mortalidad materna / Coverage for birth care in Mexico and its interpretation within the context of maternal mortality

Objetivo. Evaluar la cobertura de atención del parto en México en el contexto de la reducción de la mortalidad materna. Material y métodos. Se utilizaron dos fuentes de información: 1) la comparación de las Encuestas Nacionales de Salud y Nutrición 2006 y 2012 (ENSANUT 2006 y 2012); 2) La base de datos que monitorea las defunciones maternas de 2012 en México (hasta el 26 de diciembre de 2012) y las estimaciones de los nacidos vivos (NV) del Consejo Nacional de Población (CONAPO) para el mismo año. Resultados. La cobertura de atención del parto en unidades médicas es cercana a 94.4% a nivel nacional, pero entidades federativas como Chiapas (60.5%), Nayarit (87.8%), Guerrero (91.2%), Durango (92.5%), Oaxaca (92.6%) y Puebla (93.4%) todavía tienen coberturas de atención del parto que son menores al promedio nacional. En las mujeres adscritas a la seguridad social, se han alcanzado coberturas cercanas a 99%, y en aquéllas afiliadas al SPSS -denominado Seguro Popular- la cobertura de atención médica del parto fue de 92.9%. También en términos de la razón de mortalidad materna (RMM), se observan grandes disparidades por entidades federativas, con un promedio nacional de 47.0 por 100 000 NV (preliminar para 2012, hasta el 26 de diciembre de este año). Esta última estimación ha sido actualizada de acuerdo con las proyecciones más recientes de la población. Conclusión. En México no existe correlación entre la elevada atención del parto en unidades médicas y la RMM, por lo que no sólo es necesario garantizar la atención universal del parto por un profesional de la salud sino que ésta la debe proporcionar personal calificado de acuerdo con el nivel de atención y con un sistema de redes de atención funcionales, además de fortalecer la calidad de la atención obstétrica y los programas de planificación familiar, e implementar políticas innovadoras de salud con acciones intersectoriales en un marco de derechos humanos que disminuyan la enorme inequidad social.

Objective. To evaluate health coverage for birth care in Mexico within the frame of maternal mortality reduction. Materials and methods. Two information sources were used: 1) The comparison between the results yield by the Mexican National Health and Nutrition Surveys 2006 and 2012 (ENSANUT 2006 and 2012), and 2) the databases monitoring maternal deaths during 2012 (up to December 26), and live births (LB) in Mexico as estimated by the Mexican National Population Council (Conapo). Results. The national coverage for birth care by medical units is nearly 94.4% at the national level, but in some federal entities such as Chiapas (60.5%), Nayarit (87.8%), Guerrero (91.2%), Durango (92.5%), Oaxaca (92.6%), and Puebla (93.4%), coverage remains below the national average. In women belonging to any social security system (eg. IMSS, IMSS Oportunidades, ISSSTE), coverage is almost 99%, whereas in those affiliated to the Mexican Popular Health Insurance (which depends directly from the Federal Ministry of Health), coverage reached 92.9%. In terms of Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR), there are still large disparities among federal states in Mexico, with a national average of 47.0 per 100 000 LB (preliminary data for 2012, up to December 26). The MMR estimation has been updated using the most recent population projections. Conclusion. There is no correlation between the level of institutional birth care and the MMR in Mexico. It is thus necessary not only to guarantee universal birth care by health professionals, but also to provide obstetric care by qualified personnel in functional health services networks, to strengthen the quality of obstetric care, family planning programs, and to promote the implementation of new and innovative health policies that include intersectoral actions and human rights-based approaches targeted to reduce the enormous social inequity still prevailing in Mexico.

[Public policies for the detection of breast cancer in Mexico]. / Políticas públicas para la detección del cáncer de mama en México.

Breast Cancer is a significant public health problem associated with epidemiological and demographic transitions that are currently taking place in Mexico. Aging and increased exposure to risk factors are thought to increase breast cancer incidence, having great relevance for the society and health services. Under this scenario, the health system must respond to the growing needs for better breast cancer screening services. In this paper we present an update of breast cancer mortality, general international recommendations for breast cancer screening programs and key aspects of the Mexico Action Program for Breast Cancer Screening and Control 2007-2012. Breast cancer policies are aimed at organizing and increasing the infrastructure to develop a National Program for Detection, Diagnosis and Treatment of Breast Cancer with optimal quality, friendliness and respect for patient's rights.

Políticas públicas para la detección del cáncer de mama en México / Public policies for the detection of breast cancer in Mexico

El cáncer de mama es un problema de salud pública, prioritario por su magnitud y trascendencia, que se relaciona con las transiciones demográfica y epidemiológica del país. Con el envejecimiento de la población, y una mayor exposición a los factores de riesgo, cobrará mayor relevancia en la sociedad y los servicios de salud, que deberán responder a las necesidades crecientes de detección y atención de esta tumoración mediante programas costo-efectivos. El propósito de este artículo es exponer un análisis de la mortalidad por el cáncer de mama, así como las recomendaciones internacionales con mayor consenso sobre la organización de los programas de tamizaje; por último, se presentan los aspectos medulares del programa de acción para la detección y control del cáncer de mama durante la presente administración (2007-2012). Las políticas para el control de esta neoplasia en México están dirigidas a la organización y el crecimiento de la infraestructura para el desarrollo de un programa nacional de detección temprana, diagnóstico oportuno y tratamiento con calidad óptima, trato cordial y respeto a los derechos de las pacientes.

Breast Cancer is a significant public health problem associated with epidemiological and demographic transitions that are currently taking place in Mexico. Aging and increased exposure to risk factors are thought to increase breast cancer incidence, having great relevance for the society and health services. Under this scenario, the health system must respond to the growing needs for better breast cancer screening services. In this paper we present an update of breast cancer mortality, general international recommendations for breast cancer screening programs and key aspects of the Mexico Action Program for Breast Cancer Screening and Control 2007-2012. Breast cancer policies are aimed at organizing and increasing the infrastructure to develop a National Program for Detection, Diagnosis and Treatment of Breast Cancer with optimal quality, friendliness and respect for patient's rights.

Análisis del gasto en salud reproductiva en México, 2003 / Analysis of reproductive health expenditures in Mexico, 2003

OBJETIVOS: Estimar el gasto en salud reproductiva en México durante el año 2003, analizar su distribución según los principales programas, agentes de financiamiento y proveedores de bienes y servicios de salud, y evaluar la relación entre el gasto en salud reproductiva y algunos indicadores económicos de los estados, mediante la metodología de cuentas en salud. MÉTODOS: Se estimó el gasto en salud reproductiva entre enero y diciembre de 2003, tanto a nivel nacional como estatal. Se utilizó la metodología de cuentas en salud ajustada a las particularidades de México a partir de información pública y privada. El gasto se calculó para los cuatro principales programas de salud reproductiva (salud materno-perinatal, planificación familiar, cáncer cervicouterino y cáncer de mama) según los diferentes agentes de financiamiento, proveedores de bienes y servicios y funciones de salud, tanto para el sector público como privado. Se estimó el gasto público estatal por beneficiaria y se analizó su relación con el gasto público en salud y el producto interno bruto (PIB) anual per cápita de cada estado. RESULTADOS: El gasto en salud reproductiva en México durante el año 2003 fue de 2 912,6 millones de dólares estadounidenses y representó 0,5 por ciento del PIB nacional en 2003 y poco más de 8 por ciento del gasto en salud. El gasto fue mayor en los agentes públicos (53,5 por ciento) que en los privados (46,5 por ciento). El programa de salud materno-perinatal presentó el mayor gasto, principalmente por partos y complicaciones; casi 50 por ciento de ese total provino de pagos directos de los hogares. El gasto en planificación familiar fue mayormente público y representó 5,9 por ciento del gasto total. Del gasto en salud reproductiva, 7,9 por ciento correspondió a los programas de cáncer cervicouterino y de mama. El gasto público promedio en salud reproductiva por beneficiaria fue de 680,03 USD y su distribución estatal estuvo asociada con el gasto público...

OBJECTIVES: To estimate reproductive health expenditures in Mexico during 2003; analyze how costs were distributed across the main programs, funding entities, and providers of health goods and services; and evaluate the relationship between reproductive health expenditures and economic indicators in different states, using health accounts methods. METHODS: We estimated reproductive health expenditures between January and December 2003, at the national and state level. We used health accounts methods adjusted for the particular characteristics of Mexico on the basis of information from public and private sources. Expenditures were calculated for the four main reproductive health programs (maternal-perinatal health, family planning, cervical and uterine cancer, and breast cancer) according to different funding entities, goods and services providers, and functions of health care, in both the public and private sector. We estimated public expenditures by state per beneficiary, and analyzed how these costs were related with pubic health care expenditures and annual per capita gross domestic product (GDP) for each state. RESULTS: The reproductive health expenditures in Mexico during the year 2003 were US$ 2.912 6 billion, a figure that represented 0.5 percent of the national GDP in 2003 and slightly more than 8 percent of the total health care expenditures. Costs were higher for public entities (53.5 percent) than for private entities (46.5 percent). The maternal-perinatal health program accounted for the highest costs, mainly from deliveries and complications; direct payments from households accounted for nearly 50 percent of the total figure. Costs for family planning were accrued mainly in the public sector, and represented 5.9 percent of the total expenditure. Of the total spending on reproductive health, 7.9 percent was devoted to cervical and uterine cancer and breast cancer programs. Mean public expenditures on reproductive health per...